Photosynthesis “Dry Lab”

Materials:

•        5 test tubes
•        Bromothymol Blue (BTB)
•        Water
•        Pippet
•        An aquarium fish
•        Elodea
•        Timer

Procedure:

1.    Label each test tube Bromothymol Blue +Water, Water + Bromothymol Blue + Aquarium Fish,  Water + Bromothymol Blue + Elodea, and Water + Bromothymol Blue + Aquarium Fish + Elodea
2.    In one test tube put in pond water and bromothymol
3.    Write down observations
a.    Solution should stay blue-green
4.    In the second test tube put in pond  water and Bromothymol this time add the aquarium fish in the solution
5.    Write observation
a.    Should turn solution yellow
6.    In the third and fourth test tube put pond water and bromothymol this time instead of the aquarium fish you add elodea .
7.    Put one test tube in light for three hours and one in the dark for three hours
8.    Write observations after three hours are up
a.    The one in the light should turn blue-green
b.    The one in the dark should turn yellow
9.    For your final experiment you will need two test tube
10.                  You than to put pond water and Bromothymol Blue plus both the aquarium fish and elodea in each tube
11.                  Place one tube in a lighted area and place the other in a dark area
12.                  Leave for three hours each
13.                  After three hour take out each tube and write down your observations
a.    The one that was in the light for three hours should bea pale blue-green color
b.    The one in the dark should be a yellow color


       Conclusion

      After performing several different experiemnts the data we collected observed serval reactions. For the first experiment we put in pond water and bromothymol in a test tube. We found that there was no reaction because the pond water and bromothymol are a neutral pH. With the second experiment we added the pond water and Bromothymol but also an aquarium fish. This time we got a reaction, it turned the color yellow. This happened because of the acid from the animal respiring. This time we took two test tubes in both we put in the pond water and bromothymol and added elodea. We tan put one in light for three hours and one in the dark for three hours. The reaction from the one in the light was that it was a blue-green color this is because carbon dioxide + water yeilds sugar and oxygen when chlorophyll and sunlight is present. In the second test tube the one in the dark it reacted by turning yellow.This happened because sunlight wasn’t present so photosythesis could not happen.Finally we took a two test tubes and combined pond wate + bromothymol + an aquarium fish + elodea.  Like the previous experiment one was put under light and one in the dark both for three hours.The one in the light turned a pale gblue-green color. While the one in the dark turned yellow.I believe that these reacted the same as the previous experiments for the same reason, sunlight was present in the first one and in the second photosynthesis didn’t occur. Though the first might be a plae blue-green because of the aquarium fish.

Enzyme Yeast Reaction Lab

For the last week in biology we have done three different tests using H2O(water), H2O2(peroxide), and Yeast.

Our first experiment was using four test tubes we had to put 3ml of water and peroxide in each. Than we had to add the yeast using a dropper. For each test tube we had to increase the amount of yeast. We were to record the data of the reaction using a device that we hooked up to the computer. Below are the steps for the experiment.

Steps

1. In four test tubes put 3ml of both water and peroxide
2. Connect the data gathering device to your computer and open Logger Pro
3. Create a data table with it saying test tube label and Slope (kPa/min)
4. Using a dropper put 20 drops of yeast in test tube one
5. Stirring the solution together you than take the pressure cork and out it on the test tube
6. Hit the record button in Logger Pro and let it collect the pressure data for three minutes
7. After three minutes hit the liner fit button to get the slope of the pressure (kPa/min)
8. In a data table record the slope where it says test tube one or 20 drops depending on how you labeled it
9. Repeat steps 5-8 on each test tube increase the number of drops by ten until you get to 50
10. Once data is collect create a graph like mine below









Graph 1 explanation:

On the left side of the graph (y-axis) we labeled it slope and we labeled the bottom of the graph Number of yeast drops. In the lab we explained that you had to change the number of drops of yeast. As you can see we increased our drops by ten every time. The slope seemed to increase every time the drop increased. So to me and my partners, this data shows that the more drops you place into the test tubes the steeper the slope becomes.







11. Heres the website I used to make the graph http://nces.ed.gov/nceskids/createagraph/default.aspx

Once we graphed the data from the first experiment we did a second one. The base was still the same 3ml of water and peroxide in four tubes, But the change is that we are using temperature. For all four tubes we put them in four different temperatures, Cold, Room Temp., Warm, and Hot. taking the first tube cold we put 50 drops of yeast and connected it to the data gathering device from the previous experiments.

Steps:

1. Take four test tubes and place 3ml of water and peroxide in each
2. Then take each test tube and put one in cold water, at room temp, one in warm water, and one in hot water.
3. after a few minutes take the cold one out and add 50 drops of yeast
4. once added connect the data collecting cork that is connected to the computer and collect the data for three minutes
5. at the end of three minutes press the linar fit button and record the slope in the data table.
6. You will repeat steps 1-5 for each test tube

Graph 2:

The left side of our graph (y-axis), once again, shows the slope and our x-axis ( bottom of graph) shows Temperature in Celsius. From the last graph we used 50 drops for all the test tubes. If we didn't the data wouldn't match. This graph shows the slopes after we placed them in different temperatures. 0-5 is cold, 20-25 is room temperature, 30-35 is warm and 50-55 is HOT!! We noticed that the room temperature water had the highest slope. In my own thoughts I figured hot would have the highest. As you can see the slope started to decrease once it got to the warm water! 

For the final experiment we will put the same amount of water and peroxide in three tubes. We than added pH level of 4, 7, and 10. After connecting the tube to the data collecting device we made a graph.

Steps:

1. Taking three test tube you will put 3ml of water and peroxide in each 
2. Take one test tube and add pH 4(pink) to it. 
3. then after mixing them connect the tube to the data collecting device
4. For the second tube instead of pH level 4 you will put pH level 7(yellow) in
5. repeat steps 2 and 3
6. for the final tube put in pH level 10(blue)
7. repeat steps 2 and 3

Graph 3:

As said before our left side (y-axis) is the slope. Our x-axis (bottom part of graph) is the pH levels. We had pH level 4, pH level 7, and pH level 10. Like in the last experiment we also used 50 drops of yeast for this experiment. The data ended as I expected. The higher the pH level the steeper the slope. As you can see pH level 4 has the lowest slope and pH level 10 has the highest slope. 

With this data graph I think that it shows that at room temp. yeast will have a higher reaction. But following that would be warm, hot, and than cold with the least reaction.

PHENYLKETONURIA: A METABOLIC DISORDER

Metabolic disorders are genetic diseases that affect the body's ability to perform its normal chemical reactions. Many metabolic disorders result from enzyme defects. Recall that a metabolic pathway is a stepwise sequence of enzyme-mediated reactions. If one enzyme in a metabolic pathway is defective, that enzyme's substrate may accumulate and the pathway may not be completed. This may result in a buildup of harmful substances or a shortage of required molecules.

1. What enzyme is most commonly defective in people with phenylketonuria?

         a. Phenylalanine Hydroxylase (PAH)

2. What reaction does this enzyme catalyze? (What is the substrate and what product is produced?)

a.Changes to make Tyrosine by grabing an oxygen atom and transfers it to the bottom of phenylalanine. Afterwards a hydrogen atom then attaches to the oxygen.

3. Describe the symptoms of phenylketonuria.

a.Phenykletouria has many symptoms them being metally retardered, a small head then normal for a newborn, epilepsy, musty oder, and defincicy in tyrosine.

4. What causes the symptoms of PKU, the lack of a substance or the buildup of one?

         a. The build up of a protiens causes the symptoms of PKU.

5. How common is phenylketonuria? How is it treated?

a.PKU appears in 1 of every 10,000 births in caucaisains and east asian births. Some ethic groups have a higher rate nad some have lower rates. PKU is rare in Aficans. PKU is treated by have the person on a low-protien diet and they should stay on this diet as long as possible. Even after 12 relaxation of the diet can change a person’s behavior. Experts recommend that they keep this diet for life.

Websites:

Your Genes, Your Health: Phenylketonuria

http://www.ygyh.org

NSPKU Home Page

http://www.nspku.org

Texas Department of Health Genetic Disorders

http://www.dshs.state.tx.us/newborn

Phenylketonuria - The Genetics

http://willroberts.com/pku/

Plant Cell Structure

CYSTIC FIBROSIS - A DISORDER OF MEMBRANE TRANSPORT

http://www.cff.org/home/ 

1. What are the signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis?

      a. Signs and symptoms of cystic fibrosis are very salty-tasting skin; persistent coughing, at times with phlegm; frequent lung infections; wheezing or shortness of breath; poor growth/weight gain in spite of a good appetite; and frequent greasy, bulky stools or difficulty in bowel movements.

2. How common is this disorder?

            a. This disorder if very comon around 30,000 children and adults in the United States (70,000 worldwide) have it.

3. How is cystic fibrosis diagnosed?

            a. Cystic fibrosis is diagnosed through different methods sweat testing, newborn screening, and genetic carrier testing.

4. How is cystic fibrosis inherited? Does everyone who has a mutant gene for the protein have cystic fibrosis?

a.To have cystic fibrosis, a child must inherit one copy of the defective CF gene from each parent.

 http://resources.schoolscience.co.uk/MRC/3/page3.html

1. Explain the normal function of the protein that is defective in cystic fibrosis.

            a. Its normal function is to control the flow of chloride ions from the cell.

2. What happens to this protein in CF patients and what are the consequences for the health of these individuals?

            a.  The flow of chloride ions and of sodium ions (Na⁺) are  fundamentally altered 

 http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/cystic-fibrosis/DS00287  

1. Explain at least 3 treatments for the symptoms of cystic fibrosis.

            1. Medication

            2.Therapy

            3.Surgical and other procedures

2. Discuss at least 3 ways for parents to help their children who have cystic fibrosis.

            1.Oral emzymes and better nutrion-healthy diet and keep from fatty foods

            2.Drink lots of fluids-make sure they stay hydrated

            3.keep immunizations up to date-make sure to get annual flu shot

            4.exercise-get a good habit of exercise

            5.eliminate smoke-don’t smoke around kids

6.encourage hand washing-make sure they wash hands really well everytime they are done playing outside, or using the bathroom

Osmosis Before and After Lab Results (Graph)

This time yesterday we made our own experiment to see if the water inside the cup rushed into the membrane. To do this we weighed the membrane with solution inside before they went into to there own respective cups.  Then today when we entered class we took out each membrane and weighed them. The results showing in the graph give us a visual understanding of the results we got. In each one now matter how little each had water that went into the membrane.

Diffusion and Osmosis Lab

In the following experiment we had to create a cell membrane using a dialysis bag. We tied one end of the bag with a piece of string and opened the other end to place 15% of glucose and 1% of starch. Once we got that in bag we tied off the other end. While I was working on the bag my partner was working on the cup. She had to get a plastic 8-oz cup and fill it with 4 mL of  IKI ( iodine solution). She also had to fill it up with distilled water. Then she mixed it well to make a brown color. She tested the cup with a Urine Reagent Strip, a strip to test a person's glucose levels, to make sure no glucose was in the water. Then we both recorded the color and the glucose levels on a sheet of paper. After recording the color we then place our glucose dialysis bag into the water. We left it on the counter and waited about 30 minutes then took a look at it again. The diffusion already started to happen. The water and IKI was starting to turn light brown. The glucose and starch inside were starting to turn a black color. We tested it again with another strip and both tested positive for glucose. 

We left for the weekend and then came back today to see the final results. When we went to look at the cup a lot of changes occurred. On a sheet of paper we had to answer analysis of results questions. 

Here are the questions:

1) A)How would you explain the results you obtained?

          Over the weekend our glucose and iodine (IKI)  experiment had a drastic change. The iodine turned from a brown color to transparent. The glucose and starch membrane turned to a purple, blackish color.

    B) Which substance(s) are entering the bag and which are leaving the bag? Support your answer with experimental evidence.

           The iodine and distilled water entered the membrane because it started out as a brown color and is now transparent. The glucose and starch were leaving because it started out white and turned a blackish purple color. We also tested the water for glucose and there was a count of 100/5 mg in the water.

2) What evidence could have been collected to show quantitatively that water diffused into the dialysis bag?

        The color and glucose levels of the experiment show that the water diffused into the membrane, (dialysis bag). 

3) What results would you expect if the experiment started with a glucose and IKI (iodine) solution inside the bag and only starch and water outside? Why?

       We think that the IKI solution would not diffuse as well because of the starch and water on the outside of the dialysis bag.  

Picture Websites

http://leighsbiologyblog.blogspot.com/2010/11/diffusion-and-osmosis-lab.html

http://kandacebiologyblog.blogspot.com/2010/12/diffusion-osmosis-lab-yay.html

http://sciencestuffbyamy.blogspot.com/2011_09_01_archive.html

Membrane Structure

Down below are notes that I have taken from reading about the membrane structure also there are quiz questions and answers that i have posted below.

Notes:

¨      The cell is composed of two distinctive environments: the hydrophilic aqueous cytoplasm and the hydrophobic lipid membranes

¨      The lipid environment is defined by the family of molecules that are characterized by their hydrophobic nature and their common metabolic origin.

¨      Three members of the lipid family

o   fats (triacylglcerol), phospholipids, and steroids.

¨      Lipids are hydrophobic

o   The molecules consist of long, 16-18 carbon, hydrocarbon backbones

§  only have a small amount of oxygen containing groups.

¨      Lipids have many functions in organisms

o   waxes, pigments, steroid hormones, and cell membranes

¨      Fats, steroids, and phospholipids are very important to the functioning of membranes in cells

Fats (triacylglycerols, triglycerides)

      ¨    To construct a fat, or triacylglycerol

o   three fatty acid molecules are attached to the glycerol through an ester bond between the carboxyl group of the fatty acids and the three alcohol groups of a glycerol molecule. 

¨      A fat molecule can be composed of one, two, or three different types of fatty acids each of which can be saturated or unsaturated.

¨       Double bonds of the unsaturated fatty acids introduce kinks in the hydrocarbon backbone, unsaturated fats will not pack into a regular structure and thus remain fluid at lower temperatures

¨      Fats are mainly energy storage and insulating molecules.

¨       Per gram, fats contain twice as much energy as carbohydrates.

o   Layers of fat also surround the vital organs of animals to cushion them, and layers of fat under the skin of animals provide insulation.

    

¨     Phospholipids contain only two fatty acids attached to a glycerol head.

o   This occurs by a condensation reaction 

¨      the third alcohol of the glycerol forms an ester bond through reaction with phosphoric acid. 

¨      As a triprotic acid the phosphate group attached to the glycerol has the potential to form ester links with a variety of other molecules 

o    carbohydrates, choline, inositol and amino acids

¨      The phosphate group along with the glycerol group make the head of the phospholipid hydrophilic, whereas the fatty acid tail is hydrophobic

¨      phospholipids are amphipathic:a molecule with a polar end and a hydrophobic end

¨      Phospholipids serve a major function in the cells of all organisms: 

o   they form the phospholipid membranes that surround the cell and intracellular organelles such as the mitochondria

¨      the cell membrane is a fluid, semi-permeable bilayer that separates the cell's contents from the environment,

¨       

¨      The membrane is fluid at physiological temperatures and allows cells to change shape due to physical constraints or changing cellular volumes.

¨      The phospholipid membrane allows free diffusion of some small molecules

o   oxygen, carbon dioxide, and small hydrocarbons

§  not charged ions, polar molecules or other larger molecules such as glucose.

o   This semi-permeable nature of the membrane allows the cell to maintain the composition of the cytoplasm independent of the external environment.

¨      The steroids are a family of lipids based on a molecule with four fused carbon rings.

o   includes many hormones and cholesterol.

§  Cholesterol is a component of the cell membrane in animals and functions to moderate membrane fluidity because it restricts the motion of the fatty acid tails

            Quiz Questions and Answers:

1.     Lipids are the primary determinants of membrane structure, while proteins carry out membrane function.

2.     List the molecular components common to all phosphoglycerides.

a.     Phosphate, glycerol, and two fatty acids

3.     Name the three classes of membrane lipid. (Also stae which is the most common class.)

a.     Glycolipids, cholesterol, phospholipids (phospholipids)

4.     What type of bonding dominates interactions between lipid tails and limits fluidity?

a.     Van Der Waals forces

5.     How is asymmetry preserved? Why don’t lipids and proteins flip-flop through the bilayer?

a.     Lipid heads are hyrophilic, as are exposed portions of proteins. In other words, on either side of the mebrane, protiens and lipids interact via hydrogen bonding with water. In order to cross the membran, these molecules would have to first relinquish their hydrogen bonds with water.

                                               i.     In fact, ANY hydrophilic or partially hydrophilic molecule, whether a metabolite, a drug, or an enzyme, must relinquish favorable interactions with water in order to cross a membrane. The more hydrophilic (and the larger) a molecule, the less likely it is to cross via simple diffussion.

6.     How could you identify a transmembrane helix just by examining the amino acid sequence of a protein?

a.     Thransmebrane helices can often be indentified from a protein’s sequence as characteristic stretches of two-dozen or so hyrophobic amino acids )or more appropriately, amino acids with hydrophobic side chains; these are glycine, alanime, phenylalanine, leucine, valine, and isoleucine.

Websites:http://telstar.ote.cmu.edu/biology/MembranePage/index2.html

 http://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/macampbell/111/memb-swf/membranes.swf

Collagen Structure and Function

1.    Describe the primary structure of collagen. What are the major amino acid components?

Answer: Collagen is composed of three chains, wound together in a tight triple helix. Every third amino acid is glycine, many of the remaining amino acids are proline or hydroxyproline.

  2.    What role does vitamin C play in collagen formation? What happens when a person does not get enough vitamin C in his or her diet?

Answer: Hydroxyproline, is critical for collagen stability.The reaction requires vitamin C to assist in the addition of oxygen. Vitamin C deficiency slows the production of hydroxyproline and stops the construction of new collagen, ultimately causing scurvy.

 3. Describe the quaternary structure of collagen (the way in which the polypeptide chains are arranged).

Answer:

Part 2.

1.    What is the main symptom of osteogenesis imperfecta?  What are some other symptoms that people with OI may have?

Answer: Fragile bones that break easily. Muscle weakness, hearing loss, fatigue, joint laxity, curved bones, scoliosis, blue sclerae, dentinogenesis imperfecta (brittle teeth), and short stature, Bleeding, easy bruising, frequent nosebleeds and in a small number of people heavy bleeding from injuries

   2.   Type I osteogenesis imperfecta causes fewer problems than the other forms. How does       the collagen structure in Type I OI differ from that of the other types?

Answer: The collagen structure in Type I OI is normal compared to the other types.

1.    Describe the role of collagen in bones. Why do collagen problems lead to bone problems?

Answer: Collagen in biones are to help support it. Collagen leads to bone problems because it can sometimes be kinked or broken and cause the body to malfunction.

Proteins Concept Map

Lipids Concept Map

Carbohydrate Concept Map

Carbohydrate Identification Lab

Lab

1. Label 3 test tube Mono, Di , and Polysaccharide
2. Get an dropper and hot water(keep water hot)
3. In each tube with the dropper pour the labeled substance 
1. Liquid should be clear
4. Take the Benedict (blue liquid) and using the dropper pour till clear substance turns blue
5. Move all three tubes into hot water and let sit for at least five minutes
1. Watch for a reaction from each substance
6. Write down your observations
7. After five minutes remove tubes
8. After writing result rinse and dry tubes for next test
9. repeat step 1 and 2
10. This time instead of Benedict (blue) you will use the dropper to pour Iodine
11. repeat steps 5 through 8

 Analysis Questions

1.     Name the three categories of carbohydrates studied in this
 investigation.

            Mono, Polysaccharide, Di

2.     What three elements are present in all carbohydrates?

            Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen

           

3.     Give two examples each of sugar molecules from our 
discussion or the textbook that are:

a.     Monosaccharides: Glucose,Galactose,Fructose

b.     Disaccharides:Lactose, Sucrose,

c.     Polysaccharides: Starch, Cellulose,Glycogen 

4.     How many times larger is the number of hydrogen atoms than oxygen atoms in:

a.     Water:ratio of 2:1(hydrogen 2, oxygen 1)

b.     Carbohydrates: 2:!(hydrogen 2, oxygen 1)

5.     “Mono” means one, “di” means two, and “poly” means many. Why are these terms used
 in describing the three types of sugars?

            Theses terms (Mono, Di, Poly) are used to describe the three 
types of sugar because it tells you how many sugar molecules there are.

6.     How can you tell by using Benedict’s and iodine solutions if a sugar is a

a.     Monosaccharide

            Benedict:The Mono reacted by turning green and then three minutes
 later turned brown, and after five minutes turned orange.

            Iodine:Turned red but no reaction

b.     Disaccharide

            Benedict:No reaction

            Iodine:Tured Red no reaction

c.     Polysaccharide

            Benedict:No reaction

            Iodine:Reacted right away by turning black

7.     A certain sugar has no change in color when tested with Benedict’s solution.

a.     Can you tell what type of saccharide it is?

            Polysaccharide

b.     Explain

            There was no chemical reaction

8.     A certain sugar has a color change in Benedict’s solution.

a.     Can you tell what type of saccharide it is?

            Monosaccharide

b.     Explain.

            Mono first reacted by turning green then precced to turn 
brown and last orange

9.     Give an example of a food that contains

a.     Monosaccharides

            Ex.Soda, Candy, Fruit

b.     Disaccharides

            Ex. Table Sugar

c.     Polysaccharides

            Ex.Pasta, Bread, Starch